Introduction

Over the last ten years transport, and road transport in particular, has moved ever further up the political agenda; and three of the central transport issues have become congestion, air quality and road safety. Consequently in both government and industry circles, congestion and traffic management are now viewed as key areas in terms of their implications for the economy, for the environment, and also for the public in general through the road safety implications. At the same time, the need for rapid, flexible individual mobility has never been greater as workers travel further afield both in carrying out their existing employment, and in search of new jobs.

The government, through Local Transport Plans (LTPs), is aiming to reduce congestion and pollution by reducing car use. In June 1999 the DETR produced a document "Preparing your organisation for transport in the future: The benefits of Green Transport Plans. (are you doing your bit?)" aimed at employers. The document lays out the problems and costs of present transport arrangements, both for commuting and while working, and asks businesses to look at the options of public transport, cycling and walking.

While these options may all be viable in some cases, obvious problems can arise due to public transport schedules and distances travelled by some employees. For example, recruiting certain skills from an area limited to within walking/ cycling distance or suitably served by public transport can be difficult, if not impossible.

This explains why every business (except perhaps those in the centres of our largest cities) will want to have adequate parking space and why planning regulations should not only allow — but indeed insist upon — such space.

Disturbingly, many of the policies that have been proposed as a consequence of concerns with pollution and congestion are based on totally incorrect assumptions, e.g.: that:

1. Petrol-driven cars are responsible for increasing levels of urban air pollution
2. Projected 50-60% increases car ownership will lead to similarly unrealisable increases in predicted traffic levels, or
3. Recent increases in urban congestion have as their source corresponding increases in traffic levels

This document reviews the nature of current transport problems and considers some of the ways in which effective traffic (and hence congestion) management can be brought about.

There is a clear need to examine the most effective, long-term strategies for improving the efficiency of the transport system. To implement a patchwork quilt of "quick fixes" is unacceptable for the dire long-term economic consequences of such a short-sighted approach. All aspects of the structure and management of the transport system need to be addressed; not just remedial attempts that tackle only the symptoms of deeper underlying problems.

Fundamental Principles:

• All traffic management proposals must recognise the fundamental right to individual choice. Those who wish to continue using their cars or powered two-wheelers (PTW's) must be permitted to exercise freedom of choice.
• Measures promoting public transport must be exactly that: positive schemes encouraging the use of this mode of transport. They must not be measures (however camouflaged) merely aimed at reducing the attractiveness of car-use through road space re-allocation, traffic-gating etc...
• Restrictions on car usage demanded on the demonstrably ill-founded basis that cars are responsible for increasing levels of urban air pollution and health risk should play no part in policy formulation.
• Demands for the implementation of congestion management schemes (road tolling, traffic calming etc..) must be justified by the results of real traffic level measurements for the whole of the area affected. They must not be founded on projections (from whatever source) which have as their basis outdated and unsustainable assumptions of excessive vehicle pool and traffic level growth.
• Congestion management schemes must not be used as a purely revenue raising burden on business and on individuals.
• If an attempt is to be made to introduce workplace parking charges, it must be for traffic management purposes only. Authorities have already established their targets for traffic reduction. If these targets are being met and congestion is reducing, such charging schemes are redundant.
• Where congestion is increased as a result of traffic management measures such as: the re-phasing of traffic signals to "gate" traffic streams, the reallocation or removal of road space, the removal of parking spaces; congestion charging mechanisms must be ruled out. Similar considerations apply to the failure on the authority's part to adequately assess the impact of industrial or residential developments which have received local authority sanction. There is otherwise a direct incentive for local authorities to create congestion in order to raise revenue from road users.
• On the wider front, where requisite reductions in traffic levels (due to, e.g., technology and working practice changes) are already occurring in the absence of intervention, there can be no need for implementation of traffic management policies.
• All revenue streams arising from such schemes must be transparently and accurately tracked, and all the resultant revenues be reinvested only in the local transport infrastructure.

Parking restraints
Residents only parking is being introduced in many areas. This is being done to stop commuters and shoppers avoiding the increasing car park charges. This would unnecessary if every town centre had adequate, cheap, off-street parking that is more attractive than parking in nearby residential streets. So, indeed, should every railway station, hospital and other locus for traffic. Such measures would significantly reduce the pressure and resident parking schemes would then be unnecessary.

Parking by residential permit only also makes it difficult for service engineers and tradesmen to do their jobs. The idea that they should have to rely on the house they are visiting having purchased a visitor's permit is unacceptable. A possible alternative would perhaps be a (national?) parking permit for those that need a motorised vehicle for their work.

Enabling alternative travel modes
In many of the proposals some important elements can be overlooked. As already stated, freedom of choice of travel mode must be preserved. The Powered Two Wheeler (PTW) offers all the space saving, congestion beating advantages of the bicycle; albeit at a similar casualty rate, while still giving the travel capabilities and flexibility of the car. Encouragement of PTW use, at its simplest, only involves the provision of secure parking and storage for riding gear. Staff members may already own PTW's but not be using them for the trip to work. A mileage allowance for using PTW's on company business may also be worthy of consideration.

Road User Training/ Vulnerable Modes
Part of the reason for traffic reduction through increased parking charges is the supposed danger of mixing vehicles with the more vulnerable modes. There should be discounted parking permits available to those that have completed a hazard awareness course. Coupled with local road safety schemes targeting vulnerable road users, to remind them of their own safety responsibilities, this would encourage road safety through education.

Transport Research Laboratory statistics have established that 84% of road accidents in which pedestrians are killed or injured are precipitated by the pedestrian stepping onto the carriageway "without due care and attention" . Education of all road users — and particularly vulnerable ones — is therefore clearly crucial if we are to achieve meaningful casualty reductions.

With cyclists having the highest casualty rate of all road users, and the lowest standard of training, the need for a degree of segregation is recognised. However cycle lanes should only be created as part of an integrated cycle network. The creation of 'stand alone' cycle lanes for the purpose of traffic calming can increase the risks for this vulnerable mode and therefore be inadvisable. Having said that, more and better segregation in other, more open, semi-urban road configurations may be advisable.

While those for whom driving is an integral part of the execution of job should already be receiving advanced training under the Health and Safety at Work legislation, most employees will have received no further training since passing the test. Many will not even know what is in the latest Highway Code. With the latest American research showing that the risks of accidents in some age groups increases with increased car occupancy; those driving as part of car sharing schemes should be offered advanced driver training and hazard awareness courses. An incentive for all who have to drive to work to take such a course could improve road safety for all road users, particularly the more vulnerable modes.

With the introduction of Green Travel Plans, such incentives should be found to encourage hazard awareness training. A suggested order of priority would be:

1. Vulnerable road users: pedestrians and horse riders
2. Those using to two wheelers (powered or otherwise)
3. Those driving as part of car sharing schemes (American research shows that for some groups accident involvement rises as passenger numbers rise.)
4. Those who choose to use a car — for whatever reason.

Finally, instead of the clearly ineffective "Kill Your Speed" campaign we need imaginative television advertisements addressing children, cyclists, horse riders and the population in general on the whole gamut of road safety issues.

Hazard Awareness and Road Sign Clarity
With regard to hazard awareness and its role in enhancing road safety, the practice of confusing drivers and pedestrians alike by blurring the distinction between road and pavement must be actively discouraged and discontinued. Additionally, a vast amount of fuel is consumed, and inattentive driving done, in trying to find specific road names in general, and routes in calmed estates in particular. Both should be clearly signed, readable from all directions, at every junction. This would aid road safety, reduce congestion and pollution and reduce response times for the emergency services.

Residential traffic management cost re-allocation
At present Local Authorities are facing increasing highway maintenance costs as a result of the de-trunking program. These costs could be reduced by removing traffic calmed estates/ home zones from the highway network and handing the control and maintenance costs to the residents. (Non-residents not being encouraged to drive there, why should they pay for upkeep cost of these roads?). This would obviously result in lower council tax bills for all, and increased property values for those living in the affected areas.

Urban Accessibility Considerations
Through routes should be clearly signed and kept free from artificial obstructions as much as possible, allowing reasonable speeds. Calming, where necessary, should be of the perceptual type. Where practicable there should be limited direct access from home zones to through routes. Conversely town centres, leisure and employment areas should have good access to through routes.

Rural Areas
Rural social exclusion and unemployment is expensive and difficult (if not impossible) to solve by public transport investment alone. Consideration should be given to offering subsidised powered two wheelers (or indeed older cars or three-wheeled covered scooters that may suit the disabled and elderly.) to those who wish to take up the option, as is being done in Shropshire. Again, as in Shropshire, assistance with driving lessons can lead to enhanced employment opportunities.

Conclusions
There is justifiable concern that the transport infrastructure should efficiently serve the nation's economic and communications needs the maximum degree. The nature of the changes needed to effect this objective is the subject of considerable controversy.

While congestion undoubtedly represents a cost to society, this cost is in large part borne by those who are responsible for creating that very congestion, and consider the practice of commuting a worthwhile sacrifice in quality-of-life terms. It has already been established beyond challenge that the public health risks associated with emissions from private cars have been grossly exaggerated and that factors with entirely natural origins (e.g. pollen concentrations), lifestyle and heredity play a much greater part in influencing human health.

Road casualty issues can be addressed through greater emphasis on education of all road users — whether vulnerable or motorised; coupled with the re-instatement of the road-building programme abandoned by the current administration. Bypassing areas of high urban population density which are also subject to high traffic volumes both improves traffic flows and eliminates unnecessary transport emissions.

Urban congestion and workplace parking charging schemes must have as their objective traffic management, not revenue raising. Such schemes must be financially transparent and all resultant revenues be reinvested in the transport infrastructure — for the benefit of both public and private transport users. Measures for restricting access of private cars to urban centres, that have as their justification the reduction of emissions and pollution are unwarranted: restricting or preventing access of diesel-powered Public Service vehicles and HGV's would be of much greater benefit in public health terms.

Certain political and environmental organisations with ulterior motives have fostered the misapprehension that pollution from road traffic emissions is increasing to levels that endanger public health. Nothing could be further from the truth.

Emissions from road transport sources have, in fact, been in steep decline since 1990 (see Figs. 1 & 2). This is largely the result of the large-scale fitting of exhaust catalysts to modern petrol-engined cars. Modern catalyst equipped petrol-engined cars have emissions which are 99.9% composed of the benign constituents water, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Based even on current EURO 2 permitted vehicle emissions technology, there is consequently no realistic level of traffic growth under which road transport emissions can do anything other than continue this decline. Even more stringent (EURO 3) emissions regulations will be enacted from 2005. By 2010 this fall in road transport emissions will be between 67% and 81% of 1990 peak levels, dependent on the type of gaseous emission considered .

Figure 1- Vehicle Emissions

Key	Cars (millions)   1 pixel=100,000 cars CO (Mt)   1 pixel=0.02 Mt HCs (Mt)   1 pixel=0.0025 Mt NOx (Mt)   1 pixel=0.0025 Mt
1970	12.5 3 0.45 0.25 3
1975	14 3.1 0.5 0.28
1980	15 3.8 0.52 0.3
1985	19 4.1 0.5 0.45
1990	23 5.6 0.58 0.75
1995	25 4.2 0.45 0.68
2000	27 2.8 0.28 0.43
2005	28 2.3 0.22 0.28
2010	30 1.8 0.2 0.22

Data source: Warren Springs Laboratory

One unfortunate consequence of the adoption of clean petrol engine catalyst and fuel technology is a reduction in urban levels of NOx gases. While this, in itself, would appear to be good news, up to 60% of urban ozone levels in fact arise from natural sources. A reduction in vehicle NOx emissions means a diminished rate of operation of one of the key breakdown mechanisms for urban ozone concentrations, whether it arises from natural or Man-made VOC's (Appendix 1A).
There is no scientifically valid link between emissions from modern catalysed petrol cars and breathing disorder incidence: indeed, the country with the world's highest asthma incidence is New Zealand, which coincidentally has probably the cleanest air in the world. Incidence of the disease there exceeds levels of it in Mexico City, which has probably the greatest problem with vehicle emissions of any city in the developed world. Focussing on the UK, levels of asthma incidence are similar in the green fields of Kent and in the Western Isles of Scotland to those prevailing in the centre of our cities.

The British Asthma Foundation itself discounts as scaremongering such attempted smears involving transport emissions; and points out that in modern, almost hermetically sealed, centrally heated and carpeted homes, the indoor air quality can be up to 70 times as polluted as it is outdoors.

Yet two major problems admittedly remain with urban air quality: ground level ozone and particulates. Neither of these is wholly a road transport problem and neither is predominantly a result of the use of modern, catalysed petrol vehicles.

This will be immediately apparent when one realises that a modern, catalysed petrol car's emissions are 99.9% constituted of the benign components nitrogen, water and carbon dioxide. So clean are modern catalysed petrol models that a car in the Ford 'Focus' class produces less than one-sixtieth of the emissions of its 1970's 'Escort' counterpart. This similarly applies without exception across the model range of all European car manufacturers.

Examining the two problem areas in turn:

Ground level ozone is the product of a complex series of reactions (see Appendix 1A). These reactions take place between NOx gases , VOC's and oxygen in the presence of appropriately energetic electromagnetic radiation — in this case visible/ ultraviolet light provided by the sun.

Ground level ozone is destroyed by reaction with one of the combustion products of internal combustion engines: the mixture of oxides of nitrogen known as NOx gases. Unfortunately, the dramatic reductions in noxious urban emissions arising from the adoption of modern, ultra low emissions catalysed petrol cars has therefore also resulted in a reduction in the extent to which ground level ozone is destroyed. Nevertheless, ground level ozone levels in are generally lower in urban-, than rural areas because the higher nitric oxide levels in towns results in faster ozone breakdown.

The current urban situation is not aided by the fact that the remaining major sources of emissions of VOC's are essentially outwith the motorists' control. The largest single source of VOC's — particularly in the Summer months and then being responsible for up to 60% of VOC concentrations — is vegetation. The second most important source nowadays is fuel vapour released during refuelling operations.

In the United States all the petrol companies have been 'encouraged' by legislation to instal refuelling vapour recovery (RVR) systems to stem emissions from this totally unnecessary source of VOC's. No such determination has been shown by the UK government, which clearly prefers that all this uncombusted fuel vapour be wastefully exhausted to atmosphere, bolstering its tax revenues and allowing it to whinny on about urban air quality while doing nothing substantive to improve the situation.

Further improvements could be achieved through the adoption of so-called oxygenated fuels, such as those containing MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether). While these oxygenated fuels undoubtedly lead to cleaner emissions, there is currently great concern in the United States about contamination of watercourses with these polar, water-miscible substances. This need not be a problem given adequate vigilance regarding the prevention of runoff of fuel spills into watercourses; a level of environmental concern and awareness that that already exists within the UK anyway.

The second problem is that of particulates.

In 1994 the cleanest 70% of vehicles (mainly modern, catalytic exhaust converter equipped petrol cars) produced 18% of road transport emissions; while the dirtiest 10% of vehicles (mainly older diesel powered buses, taxis, heavy- and light goods vehicles) were responsible for 44% . The situation can only have become more polarised since then, with the proportion of modern, ultra-low emissions catalysed petrol cars getting ever higher and with no steps having been taken to clean up the emissions of public transport.

Latest National Environment Technology Centre figures are damning of 1950's technology diesel-powered vehicles. Annually an average bus produces NOx gases equivalent to the emissions of 39 modern cars; and particulates equivalent to the emissions of 128 modern cars (see Table 1).

Even more worryingly, researchers at Japan's University of Kyoto have shown that particulate exhaust emissions from old technology diesel powered vehicles contain high proportions of a nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (nitro-PAH) 3-nitrobenzanthrone, the most potent currently-known carcinogen.

The proportion of this compound in diesel exhaust emissions increases with vehicle acceleration and load. This chemical may well be a significant contributor to urban lung cancer incidence and other breathing disorders.

It is therefore a public scandal that buses, trains and other diesel powered public service vehicles — which are the major transport sources of particulates — are currently exempt from the random emissions testing régime applicable to private petrol cars.

Yet we are constantly exhorted, by evidently ill-informed sources, to abandon more environmentally-friendly (and infinitely more convenient) petrol cars in favour of particulate-belching public transport. A further, less immediately obvious point is that the official penchant for schemes which actually obstruct and reduce the steady flow of road traffic (e.g., the M4 bus lane) do not just impose an economic burden in terms of increased journey times and therefore wasted economic resources.

Given that there is nothing more wasteful than vehicles stationary with running engines; not only do these ill-judged schemes do nothing to make public transport more attractive; but also they increase pollution and the very congestion government is committed to prevent — while at the same time leading to increased accident risk. Such has been the experience in the United States; where, one-by-one such schemes are being removed.

Clearly then, if we are to meaningfully address the important issue of urban air quality and the concerns of the general populace, the following policies need to be instituted now:

• Introduction of random on-road emissions testing of public service vehicles
• Legislation to make compulsory the fitting of fuel vapour recovery equipment at all filling stations to capture VOC's currently emitted during vehicle refuelling operations
• Adoption of oxygenated fuels, and
• The reinstatement of the many bypass and other traffic flow enhancement schemes cancelled or postponed by the current government.

To form ozone, O₃, an oxygen molecule, O₂, has to react with an excited oxygen atom O*. Sunlight, VOC's and NOx all play a part in the formation and perpetuation of atmospheric ozone.

Oxygen atoms are generated in the reaction of nitrogen dioxide with sunlight:

hn (sunlight) + NO₂ => NO + O* (1)

O₂ + O* => O₃ (2)

NO + O₃ => NO₂ + O₂ (3)

In the presence of sunlight, peroxy radicals are formed from VOC's by photochemical oxidation of the hydrocarbon chains of the VOC. These species are capable of oxidising nitrous oxide, NO, back to nitrogen dioxide, NO2.

The ability of VOC's to enhance the stability of ozone varies: four of the 300 VOC's on the UK inventory — toluene, butane, ethylene and xylene -account for 40% of the photo-oxidant chemical potential.

Suggestions that traffic levels can increase dramatically beyond current levels fail to take into account the fact that over 85% of eligible males, and 60% of eligible females are already licence holders. However many vehicles they own, one driver can only drive one vehicle at a time. The dramatic influence that changing working practices are going to have on commuting patterns is also ignored: one recent survey has suggested that 10% of the British population (5.8 million) could be teleworkers by 2004.

In the last 20 years taxation of UK road users has increased dramatically (by some 2200%), yet the proportion of GDP spent on roads has declined substantially: most nations spend about 1% of GDP on their road networks. The UK spends less than 0.5% and the amount is declining rapidly. The current administration sees road building as a last resort; while all our European partners are dramatically extending their strategic road networks. Since 1967 only some 600 miles of motorway and 1000 miles of strategic A road have been added (these two classes having accommodated nearly all the traffic growth over that period), but nearly 20,500 miles of non-strategic industrial and housing estate roads have been added.

Fig 3. Road length & Traffic Volume 1976-1996

Key	% length increase % traffic increase length added
Motorways	50% 128% 1071km
A Roads	4% 66% 1643km
Non-trunk roads	12% 41% 32682km

Data source: Warren Springs Laboratory

The stalled UK strategic and bypass road building programme must therefore be re-instated to:

• Reduce casualties (motorway standard roads have death and serious casualty rates one-quarter to one-third of those on other road classes).
• Reduce congestion and prevent unnecessary emissions from stationary traffic.
• Improve the quality of life of hard-pressed residents adjacent to unsuitable roads which are subject to high-volume traffic flows due to the absence of alternative high quality routes.
• Facilitate the efficient functioning of the economy.

• An outer London orbital carrying long-haul traffic wishing to circumnavigating the London area.
• Extension of the M1/A1(M) Northwards from Newcastle to Edinburgh.
• Completion of the M67 Manchester-Sheffield link
• Upgrading of A34 Bicester-Southampton
• Ditto A12 London-Felixstowe
• Re-adoption of the many rural and urban bypass schemes currently either cancelled or on hold.

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